Carotenoid and vitamin A intake in infants and toddlers (0-24 months) - sources, contribution to vitamin A requirements, and demographic patterns (NHANES 2015-2020)

Authors: SENAWONG, TAEGEN - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC); NGUYEN, THUY - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC); MIRABILE, YIMING - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC); SENKUS, KATELYN - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC); MUSAAD, SALMA - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC); MORAN, NANCY - Children'S Nutrition Research Center (CNRC)

Submitted to: Nutrition Research
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 9/8/2025
Publication Date: 9/11/2025
Citation: Senawong, T., Nguyen, T., Mirabile, Y.Z., Senkus, K.E., Musaad, S., Moran, N.E. 2025. Carotenoid and vitamin A intake in infants and toddlers (0-24 months) - sources, contribution to vitamin A requirements, and demographic patterns (NHANES 2015-2020). Nutrition Research. 143(2025):29-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2025.09.004.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2025.09.004

Interpretive Summary: Carotenoids are pigments in fruits and vegetables that help meet vitamin A needs and may support brain development in children. However, we know little about how much carotenoids and vitamin A young children eat. This study looked at U.S. children ages 0–6, 7–12, and 12–24 months to measure carotenoid and vitamin A intake, compare age groups, and see if patterns differ by demographics. Diet and demographic data from 1,035 infants and toddlers in the 2015–2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was analyzed. Carotenoid contributions to the vitamin A needs of young children increased with age, supporting 19% of needs for 0–6 months of age, 36% for 7–12 months of age, and 57% for 12–24 months of age. Age was linked to higher intakes of vitamin A, retinol, and carotenoids after adjusting for sex, race, and poverty. Boys ate more preformed vitamin A, and children in poverty ate more preformed vitamin A, and less vitamin A from carotenoids. "Baby vegetables" were the main source for younger infants, while "mixed dishes" were for older toddlers. Overall, carotenoid intake rises with age and helps meet young childrens’ vitamin A needs. Baby vegetables and mixed dishes are key sources during early childhood in the U.S.

Technical Abstract: Carotenoids are fat-soluble pigments found predominantly in fruits and vegetables that contribute to vitamin A requirements and are associated with pediatric neurodevelopment. However, typical amounts and patterns of total carotenoid, pro-vitamin A carotenoid, and vitamin A intake in very young children are poorly defined. The purpose of this study was to describe carotenoid and vitamin A intakes for U.S. children aged 0 to 6, >6 to 12, and >12 to 24 months of age; determine whether intake is significantly different among the 3 age groups; and determine if carotenoid intake patterns differ by demographic characteristics. Cross-sectional dietary intake and demographic data from 1035 infants and toddlers aged 0 to 24 months from the 2015-2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed using binomial-gamma hurdle models. Vitamin A from food carotenoids (retinol activity equivalents) provided 19% of the adequate intake for the 0- to 6-month-olds and 36% for the 7- to 12-month-olds, and 57% of the recommended dietary allowance for the 12- to 24-month-olds. Age was associated with intakes of total vitamin A (P<.001), retinol (P<.001), total carotenoids (P<.001), vitamin A from carotenoids (P<.001), and provitamin A from carotenoids (P<.001), after adjusting for sex, race, and poverty status. There was also a significant association of male sex with greater preformed vitamin A intake, and of poverty status with greater intake of preformed vitamin A and decreased vitamin A from carotenoids. Overall, "baby vegetables" were the greatest source of total carotenoid intake in the 0- to 6-month and 6- to 12-month groups, and "mixed dishes" in the 12- to 24-month group. In summary, young children's carotenoid intake increases significantly with age, and provitamin A carotenoid intake contributes to their vitamin A requirements. "Baby vegetables," and later, "mixed dishes" are the major sources of carotenoids during this life stage in the United States.