Artificial feeding of ticks: a 3Rs-based approach for studying tick biology, pathogen transmission and drug discovery

Authors: MUSTAFA, BAHAR - University Of Melbourne; GHAFAR, ABDUL - University Of Melbourne; DURU, VINCENT - University Of Melbourne; ABBAS, GHAZANFAR - University Of Melbourne; GAUCI, CHARLES - University Of Melbourne; ABDULLAH, SWAID - University Of Queensland; BEVERIDGE, IAN - University Of Melbourne; CABEZAS-CRUZ, ALEJANDRO - University Of Paris; Ueti, Massaro; NIJHOF, ARD - Freie University; JABBAR, ABDUL - University Of Melbourne

Submitted to: Animal Health Research Reviews
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 5/11/2026
Publication Date: 5/11/2026
Citation: Mustafa, B.E., Ghafar, A., Duru, V.C., Abbas, G., Gauci, C., Abdullah, S., Beveridge, I., Cabezas-Cruz, A., Ueti, M.W., Nijhof, A.M., Jabbar, A. 2026. Artificial feeding of ticks: a 3Rs-based approach for studying tick biology, pathogen transmission and drug discovery . Animal Health Research Reviews. 27. Article e3. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1466252326100097.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1466252326100097

Interpretive Summary: Ticks are significant ectoparasites that transmit various diseases to humans and animals. Traditionally, researchers have used live animals such as sheep, rabbits, and rodents to study tick feeding and disease transmission. Although these models have provided valuable insights, they present ethical, practical, and scientific challenges, particularly as the 3Rs principles (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) gain prominence in research. Artificial tick feeding systems have emerged as a promising alternative, supporting the 3Rs by offering a more ethical and potentially consistent approach to studying tick-borne diseases. These systems enable both soft and hard ticks to feed in controlled environments, reducing reliance on live animals. However, designing and operating artificial feeding systems remains technically complex, and their effectiveness varies by tick species and life stage. This review summarizes current literature on artificial tick feeding systems, identifies key technical and biological challenges, and underscores the need for coordinated efforts to improve and standardize these methods. Enhanced systems will advance our understanding of tick-borne disease transmission and facilitate the development of new treatments, vaccines, and control strategies for diseases affecting both animals and humans.

Technical Abstract: Ticks are globally significant ectoparasites and competent vectors of a wide range of pathogens affecting humans and animals. Tick-borne diseases such as Lyme borreliosis, babesiosis and anaplasmosis continue to pose significant health and economic burdens worldwide. Historically, research on tick and tick-borne diseases (TTBD) has relied heavily on the use of live animals, such as sheep, rabbits and rodents, as hosts to facilitate blood feeding and pathogen transmission studies. While effective, these in vivo models raise ethical, logistical and biological concerns, particularly considering the increasing importance of the 3Rs principles (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) in biomedical research. In recent years, artificial tick feeding systems (ATFS) have emerged as a promising alternative that aligns with the 3Rs, offering a more ethical and potentially more standardised platform for studying TTBDs. These systems enable controlled feeding of soft and hard ticks with limited use of live animals, thus facilitating research under defined experimental conditions. Despite their potential, the design and implementation of ATFS remain technically challenging and variably successful across tick types, species and developmental stages. This systematic review critically appraises the literature on ATFS published between 1912 and 2024 (n = 206 studies), categorising systems into capillary feeding, membrane feeding, and semi-automated membrane feeding platforms. We highlight that while membrane feeding systems dominate the field, significant limitations persist, particularly the extended blood-feeding durations required by hard ticks, which predispose systems to microbial contamination and increased tick mortality. Moreover, the need for species-specific optimisation to accommodate diverse mouthpart morphologies and physiological requirements remains challenging. By synthesising current knowledge and identifying key technical and biological challenges, this review underscores the necessity for coordinated research efforts to refine and standardise ATFS. Such advancements will enhance our understanding of tick-pathogen interactions and vector competence and accelerate the development of novel therapeutics, vaccines and integrated control strategies against TTBDs.