Vegetarianísh - How "Flexitarian" eating patterns are defined and their role in global food-based dietary guidance

Authors: Hess, Julie; ROBINSON, KADEN - University Of North Dakota; SCHEETT, ANGELA - University Of North Dakota

Submitted to: Nutrients
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 7/17/2025
Publication Date: 7/19/2025
Citation: Hess, J.M., Robinson, K., Scheett, A. 2025. Vegetarianísh - How "Flexitarian" eating patterns are defined and their role in global food-based dietary guidance. Nutrients. 17(14). Article 2369. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142369.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17142369

Interpretive Summary: Interest in plant-based eating has risen in recent years due in part to perceived benefits to human health and the environment from reducing intake of animal foods, especially meat. While few consumers follow strict vegetarian or vegan diets, a flexitarian diet, which reduces but does not eliminate animal products, may be a more realistic option. Yet, little research has been conducted to date on eating patterns with this label. This study reviewed the current literature on flexitarian diets to identify how many servings of dairy, meat, and fish are included in flexitarian diets described in previous research. Then, this study evaluated food based dietary guidance from 42 different countries and regions to investigate whether a flexitarian diet is mentioned in FBDGs and whether it is possible to follow a flexitarian diet while meeting diet recommendations in each country or region. Only one country (Sri Lanka) mentions a semi-vegetarian diet in their FBDGs but a flexitarian-style pattern is feasible within the bounds of most FBDGs evaluated.

Technical Abstract: Background: A dietary pattern that simply reduces animal-based foods may be more acceptable to consumers than strict vegetarian or vegan diets. Objective: The objective of this investigation was to identify the most consistently used definitions of “flexitarian” dietary patterns, or dietary patterns with reduced amount of animal foods. Then, sets of food-based dietary guidance (FBDG) from different countries and regions were evaluated to determine whether their guidance could accommodate flexitarian diets. Methods: A literature search yielded 62 results on flexitarian eating after screening by title/abstract, full text availability, and English language. Definitions of “flexitarian” were extracted from each article then reviewed and summarized. FBDGs available in English were downloaded from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations website. Guidance related to reduced animal product diets was extracted from FBDGs for eating patterns closest to 2000 kcal. Results: The summary definition of flexitarian included eating at least one animal product (dairy, eggs, meat, or fish) at least once per month but less than once per week. FBDGs from n=42 countries or regions were downloaded and data extracted. Only FBDG from Sri Lanka explicitly describe a “semi-vegetarian” eating pattern, though n= 12 FBDGs describe a vegetarian pattern and n=14 recommend reducing meat or animal food and/or choosing meat/dairy alternatives. Conclusions: Following a flexitarian dietary pattern in terms of reducing or limiting red meat is feasible and even implicitly recommended by the official dietary guidance of several countries. Most FBDGs examined did not include recommendations to decrease dairy or fish intake.