Stage-specific adaptive responses of quinoa to salinity based on morphometric, ionomic, and genetic responses

Authors: BEKMIRZAEV, GULOM - National University Of Uzbekistan; CHENG, KYLE - University Of California, Riverside; VIEIRA, CLARISSA - Federal Rural University Of Pernambuco; RIBEIRO JUNIOR, WALTER - Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA); Ferreira, Jorge; Sandhu, Devinder

Submitted to: ACS Agricultural Science and Technology
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 6/4/2026
Publication Date: 7/3/2026
Citation: Bekmirzaev, G., Cheng, K., Vieira, C.B., Ribeiro Junior, W.Q., Ferreira, J.F., Sandhu, D. 2026. Stage-specific adaptive responses of quinoa to salinity based on morphometric, ionomic, and genetic responses. ACS Agricultural Science and Technology. 6(7):1157-1169. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsagscitech.5c01059.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsagscitech.5c01059

Interpretive Summary: Saline soils pose a major challenge for agriculture worldwide, reducing crop yields and threatening food security. Quinoa has gained attention because of its ability to grow in salty environments while providing highly nutritious grains. In this study, we explored how quinoa plants respond to saline irrigation at different stages of their growth, specifically looking at changes in growth, nutrient uptake, and the activity of certain genes that help the plant tolerate salt. The findings showed that when salinity was introduced early in the plant’s life (two to six weeks after germination), quinoa plants experienced more severe reductions in yield, root growth, and overall size. Leaf and root tissues accumulated higher levels of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) during these early stages, while potassium (K) levels often remained stable or even increased, suggesting that the plant actively holds onto this crucial nutrient to counteract harmful salts. Interestingly, when salinity stress was applied later (around 14 weeks after germination), the effect on yield was much smaller, implying that older, more mature plants can cope better with salty conditions. Molecular analyses revealed that key genes involved in transporting ions such as sodium and potassium ions were turned on when salinity was applied at early stages, indicating a strong defense strategy to keep vital nutrients in balance. However, these genetic responses were less pronounced when the stress was introduced at later stages, suggesting that older plants rely less on active defense mechanisms and may already be partially protected by their more developed structures. Farmers and plant breeders can benefit from this information by adjusting irrigation schedules to minimize salinity stress during early growth, and by developing new quinoa varieties that better withstand salty conditions. Ultimately, these insights help ensure stable quinoa production in regions with saline soils, offering a resilient and nutritious crop for communities worldwide.

Technical Abstract: Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) is a highly nutritious, salt-tolerant crop with potential for cultivation in saline-affected regions. This study assessed the effects of salinity stress (ECw = 25 dS/m) applied at four growth stages (2, 6, 10, and 14 weeks after germination) on quinoa’s morphological, physiological, and molecular responses. Early salinity exposure (T1 and T2) significantly reduced grain yield (55–65%), root development, and plant growth, whereas late-stage salinity (T4) had minimal impact, indicating greater tolerance at maturity. Leaf and root Na and Cl levels increased across all salinity treatments, with the highest accumulation in early and mid-stage stress. Potassium (K) levels increased under early salinity, suggesting an adaptive mechanism. Soil analysis revealed elevated Na and Cl in T3 and reduced nitrogen due to leaching. Gene expression analysis showed upregulation of ion transport and stress tolerance genes in early stages, while later stages exhibited a diminished molecular response. These findings provide insights for optimizing quinoa cultivation in saline environments.