Enhanced ability of 3D-printed bricks to treat wastewater under variable conditions

Authors: PATHIRANAGE, WATHSALA - University Of Mississippi; SHARP, CHLOE - Rensselaer P0lytechnic Institute; WILLIAMS, CECYLIA - University Of Mississippi; MCKNIGHT, ANNA - University Of Mississippi; ALGHARIBEH, OMAR - University Of Mississippi; HONG, YINSHAN - University Of Mississippi; Williams, Clinton; RUSHING, GRACE - University Of Mississippi; ALKHATEB, HUNAIN - University Of Mississippi; D'ALESSIO, MATTEO - University Of Mississippi

Submitted to: Journal of Environmental Management
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 4/17/2025
Publication Date: 5/14/2025
Citation: Pathiranage, W.B., Sharp, C., Williams, C., McKnight, A., Algharibeh, O., Hong, Y., Williams, C.F., Rushing, G., Alkhateb, H., D'Alessio, M. 2025. Enhanced ability of 3D-printed bricks to treat wastewater under variable conditions. Journal of Environmental Management. 386. Article 125690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125690.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125690

Interpretive Summary: This study evaluated the ability of two low-cost and sustainable materials, clay and crawfish shell waste, used to produce 3D-printed bricks to remove turbidity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), total coliforms and E. coli. Additionally, their ability to remove chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) was measured. All three systems, including the control, effectively removed turbidity (up to 96%), total coliforms (up to 99%) and E. coli (up to 99%). Although the changes in removal efficiencies were not statistically different, the sand filter with clay bricks showed the highest removal rates for turbidity (87.1% ± 7.1), COD (55% ± 18.6) and TOC (47% ± 27). Overall, the reactor with crawfish bricks performed slightly better in removing total coliforms (97.3% ± 2.9) compared to the reactor with clay bricks (97% 56 ±7), and the control (97.2% ±3.9). A similar trend was also observed in terms of E. coli. Among the different CECs analyzed, the highest removal rates were recorded for fluoxetine (100% removal), diphenhydramine (>90% removal) and erythromycin (60% -100% removal) regardless of the reactor used. However, the reactor with crawfish bricks outperformed the other two in removing CECs exhibiting a 40% - 80% removal such as trimethoprim, tramadol, irbesartan, guaifenesin, gabapentin and losartan, as well as CECs exhibiting a relatively low removal (10 – 40 %) including lidocaine and sucralose. Overall the 3-D printed bricks provided effective removal of the contaminants of interest from wastewater.

Technical Abstract: Wastewater reuse after adequate treatment represents a sustainable approach and a valuable alternative source to mitigate the current water scarcity. In wastewater treatment, low-cost and low-tech approaches draw attention as small/rural communities are facing difficulties in achieving the anticipated water quality standards due to the lack of funds, or expert knowledge in implementing and maintaining high-tech treatment methods. This study evaluated the ability of two low-cost and sustainable materials, clay and crawfish shell waste, used to produce 3D-printed bricks to remove turbidity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), total coliforms and E. coli. Additionally, their ability to remove chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) was also investigated. Three different reactors were built for the study, 1) a reactor with crawfish shell waste bricks (90% clay and 10% crawfish shell waste) with sand, 2) a reactor with 3D-printed clay bricks with sand, and 3) a control (without 3D printed bricks) with sand. All three systems, including the control, effectively removed turbidity (up to 96%), total coliforms (up to 99%) and E. coli (up to 99%). Although the changes in removal efficiencies were not statistically different, the sand filter with clay bricks showed the highest removal rates for turbidity (87.1% ± 7.1), COD (55% ± 18.6) and TOC (47% ± 27). Overall, the reactor with crawfish bricks performed slightly better in removing total coliforms (97.3% ± 2.9) compared to the reactor with clay bricks (97% 56 ±7), and the control (97.2% ±3.9). A similar trend was also observed in terms of E. coli. Among the different CECs analyzed, the highest removal rates were recorded for fluoxetine (100% removal), diphenhydramine (>90% removal) and erythromycin (60% -100% removal) regardless of the reactor used. However, the reactor with crawfish bricks outperformed the other two in removing CECs exhibiting a 40% - 80% removal such as trimethoprim, tramadol, irbesartan, guaifenesin, gabapentin and losartan, as well as CECs exhibiting a relatively low removal (10 – 40 %) including lidocaine and sucralose.