Location: Bio-oils Research
2025 Annual Report
Objectives
Objective 1: Resolving chemical processes advancing high-value polymers from agriculturally based oils and other feedstocks.
Objective 2: Enabling commercially relevant biobased materials and fuels.
Sub-objective 2.A. Transforming cellulose into porous composites used for controlled release or capture of analytes.
Sub-objective 2.B. Use of catalytic technology to synthesize biobased fuels with higher value.
Approach
Alternatives to petroleum-derived products from biobased products has been a research goal of private, university, and government researchers for many years. Although progress toward the goal of a major biobased economy is evident in several commercialized areas, such as biobased fuels, high profile business failures are unfortunately still commonplace in the private sector. The basis for biobased marketplace failures may be due to multiple factors, but enabling more high-value, cutting-edge products that expand the biobased market place is seen as a likely successful solution. This plan utilizes a balanced approach that combines mature technologies, with readily available markets, with newer and less developed areas of research. Existing markets, such as soybean oil-based structural resins and biobased aviation fuels, are targeted for improvements that will increase the biobased content of products that are already available in the marketplace. Entirely new products, such as biobased 3-dimensionally printed films and supercritical solvent-expanded ion absorbing resins, are proposed in this plan. Such an approach reaches across several industries while looking into the future at emerging technologies with market opportunities. More specifically, the first objective is the synthesis of high-value polymers. New reaction technologies and the application of polyfunctional co-reactants will lead to structures that have previously not been possible when starting from vegetable oils. The second objective will develop new materials from cellulosic feedstocks by transforming them into higher surface area polymers that can then be activated with further facile chemical modification. Additionally, newly developed decarboxylation technology will be leveraged to convert fatty acids into a high-value renewable hydrocarbon aviation fuel that mimics the composition of the corresponding petroleum-derived fuel.
Progress Report
This is the final report for this project which terminated in May 2025. See the report for the replacement project, 5010-30600-006-000D, “Utilizing Vegetable Oils to Produce Renewable and Sustainable Replacements for Environmentally Persistent Industrial Polymers.”
Objective 1: New biobased epoxy resins from soybean oil were developed. Commercial epoxy resins are used as paints, coatings, and adhesives, among other important commercial applications. These materials are produced from toxic and nonrenewable chemicals and do not biodegrade once they are discarded. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed renewable and biodegradable epoxy resin replacements from soybean oil using a simple, cost effective, and industrially relevant process that avoided toxic materials. The new materials had pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) and flexible coatings applications, both of which are lucrative markets. For instance, the global PSA and flexible coatings markets were recently valued at $13 billion and $5 billion, respectively, with growth forecasted for the foreseeable future. This research benefits American farmers and rural economies because it resulted in agriculturally-based products that can replace existing epoxy resins derived from petroleum, thereby providing additional high-value markets for soybean oil.
Objective 1: Biobased chewing gum elastomers were developed from soybean oil. Over 1.7 trillion sticks of chewing gum are produced annually, which equates to a market size of approximately $25 billion. Base materials comprise 25-35% of chewing gum and are nonrenewable and nonbiodegradable. These base materials therefore proliferate as unsightly waste in public areas. Thus, biobased and biodegradable base materials from soybean oil and citric acid were developed by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois. Citric acid is found in citrus fruits and is generally regarded as safe for human consumption. The newly developed renewable materials were soft and rubbery (as opposed to hard and/or glassy), which are essential characteristics of chewing gum. These results benefit American farmers because new materials were developed from soybean oil that can replace existing products derived from petroleum, thereby aiding rural economies by providing additional high-value markets for agricultural products.
Objective 1: A new technology for production of biobased p-cymene was developed. p-Cymene is an important industrial chemical with an estimated market size of $63 million. It is currently made from nonrenewable and toxic benzene or toluene and is used as a solvent, fragrance component in perfumes, and as a precursor for pharmaceuticals and pesticides. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed a simple method to convert terpenes, which are obtained from the citrus industry, into p-cymene for industrial applications. This research thus opens the p-cymene market to American citrus producers and reduces our dependence on imported petroleum and toxic materials.
Objective 2.A: An ion-exchange method for the recovery of lithium from used batteries was developed. Sustainable production and recycling of consumer goods is essential to the economic security of the United States and reduces landfill waste. Lithium is considered a critical mineral by the United States due to its pervasive use in lithium-ion batteries. Lithium production worldwide hit a record of 240,000 metric tons in 2024, which was nine times higher than in 2010, when it was only 28,100 metric tons. However, economical recycling of used batteries remains elusive primarily due to the low value of recovered lithium. Moreover, the disposal of lithium batteries poses significant environmental and safety risks. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, in collaboration with partners, developed a simple, economical, and practical method based on commercially mature ion-exchange technology to recover lithium from spent battery cathodes. The process produced a high-value fertilizer containing both potassium and phosphorus, which are essential plant nutrients.
Objective 2.A: New renewable insulation materials were developed from soybean oil. Polyurethane insulation is a common and important material with a $49 billion global market value. It is often used in walls, roofs, flooring, and furniture, but is made from toxic chemicals and cannot be reused, recycled, or biodegraded after use. It also comes from nonrenewable sources and furthers American dependence on imported petroleum. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed biobased insulation materials from soybean oil with properties similar to conventional polyurethane foams utilizing simple and environmentally friendly methods. This work therefore expands markets for soybean oil, thereby aiding American farmers with additional high-value uses for their products.
Objective 2.A: A new technology was developed to modify jojoba oil for high-value cosmetics and skin care applications. Personal care products often contain coconut oil, which is a creamy solid but is imported from tropical countries. A novel process was therefore developed by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, that converted liquid jojoba oil, which is produced in the southwestern United States, into a solid coconut oil replacement. Thus, conversion of domestically produced jojoba oil into a solid material that has applications in the lucrative cosmetics ($336 billion USD global market size) industry is advantageous to American farmers because imported coconut oil was substituted for an American product.
Objective 2.B: A new biodiesel fuel from citrus seed oil was developed. Citrus seed oil, an unutilized waste product of the orange juice industry, was investigated as a low-cost feedstock for production of biodiesel. Biodiesel is an important alternative diesel fuel with an estimated market value of $43 billion in 2024. The oil, provided by ARS researchers in Fort Pierce, Florida, was converted into biodiesel by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois. The fuel properties of the resulting biodiesel were compared to biodiesel prepared from soybean oil as well as to the American biodiesel standard. Findings indicated that the oxidative stability was below the minimum limit in the biodiesel standard, but this was corrected with antioxidants. Other fuel properties were within the limits prescribed in the standard and similar to the properties of biodiesel made from soybean oil. This research indicated a commercial outlet for waste citrus seed oil that was unsuitable for human consumption due to citrus greening disease, thereby aiding the orange juice industry.
Objective 2.B: A biobased anti-mosquito compound was developed from soybean oil. Mosquito-borne diseases continue to pose human health problems in the United States, and vector control is one of the only practical solutions. Current methods for mosquito control include atmospheric and chemical insecticides, but these pose problems relating to environmental safety and onset of insecticide resistance. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed a new compound from soybean oil that showed larvicidal activity against a common mosquito in the United States that spreads dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, yellow fever, and other diseases. Findings indicated that the median lethal concentration values for the new compound and a commercial reference comparison were similar, which suggested potent larvicidal activity. This research aids American farmers and rural economies by expanding markets for soybean oil to produce anti-mosquito compounds that reduce the spread of dangerous diseases.
Objective 2.B: A partially biobased electrochemically active material was developed from soybean oil. Materials with electrochemical properties are needed for the next generation of batteries, fuel cells, and active catalysts, but these materials are traditionally made from imported components, toxic chemicals, or limited-source resources. Incorporation of biobased content into these products is limited because conventional petroleum-derived polymers are still widely used by producers. ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, investigated a new way to incorporate natural materials into these products. Starting from soybean oil, a new electrochemical catalyst was developed that contained approximately 50% biobased content. This new product yielded similar performance to conventional catalysts when tested in an electrochemical reaction, thereby demonstrating the feasibility of incorporating biobased content into materials with electrochemical properties. This work therefore aids American farmers and rural economies by creating new products from soybean oil that expand utilization of agricultural materials.
Objective 2.B: A new technology for producing sustainable aviation fuel from soybean oil was developed. The global jet fuel market is worth over $195 billion annually and is projected to grow to $330 billion by 2030. Currently, almost all jet fuel is produced from petroleum. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed a new catalyst that produces sustainable aviation fuel from soybean oil. This new fuel has higher aromatic content than other biobased jet fuels made using different technologies, which is an important advantage when blending with conventional aviation fuel. The aromatic content keeps seals in the fuel systems pliable, elastic, and swollen, which prevents fuel leakage. As a result, aromatics must be included in specified amounts to meet jet fuel specifications. Moreover, the aromatic content also makes the newly developed fuel fully compatible at all blend levels with conventional aviation fuel, which is a significant advantage over other sustainable aviation fuels that lack aromatic content. This research benefits American farmers and rural economies by developing a new method that enables jet fuel produced from soybean oil to enter the large aviation fuel market.
Accomplishments
1. New biobased chewing gum materials from soybean and hemp seed oils. Chewing gum base materials are nonrenewable polymers that proliferate as unsightly waste due to their nonbiodegradable nature. Therefore, fully biobased and biodegradable chewing gum base materials were developed by ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, from soybean oil and hemp seed oil. The new polymers were soft and rubbery, which are essential characteristics of chewing gum base materials. These results benefit American farmers and rural economies because new high-value chewing gum base materials were produced from soybean oil and hemp seed oil that can replace existing nonrenewable and nonbiodegradable materials derived from petroleum.
2. New biobased epoxy resins from soybean oil with adhesives and coatings applications. Commercial epoxy resins are used as paints, coatings, and adhesives, among other important applications. The global epoxy resin market has an annual estimated value of over $11 billion USD and is expected to continue growing due to increasing demand for paints and coatings. However, epoxy resins are not renewable or biodegradable, which enables them to negatively impact human health and ecosystems by accumulating as toxic pollutants. Thus, ARS researchers in Peoria, Illinois, developed biobased, biodegradable, and safe epoxy resins from soybean oil using a simple, inexpensive, efficient, and scalable process. The resulting 100% biobased materials were soft and tacky with potential pressure-sensitive adhesive and flexible coatings applications. This research benefits American farmers and rural economies because it enables production of biobased products with high market volume and value from soybean oil.
Review Publications
Liu, Z., Cheng, H.N., Biswas, A., Jackson, M., Qureshi, N. 2024. Nanocomposites prepared in supercritical carbon dioxide from epoxidized soybean oil, citric acid, and cellulose nanofibers. Journal of Polymers and the Environment. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-024-03471-7.
Prajapati, R., Zaborowski, E., Lu, H., Rajagopalan, N., Sharma, B.K., Moser, B.R., Kumar, N. 2024. Production of sustainable aviation fuel additives through selective hydrogenation of pyrolyzate from waste polystyrene. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 13(1):212-219. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.4c06748.
Biswas, A., Cheng, H.N., Chisholm, B., Beni, R., Liu, Z., Vermillion, K., Appell, M., Forson, K., El Seoud, O., Alves, C.R., Furtado, R.F. 2025. Self-thickening materials derived from phenylpropanoid ene reactions. Molecules. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30050977.
Acharya, T., Jeffries, K.A., Bowman, K.D., Moser, B.R., Moser, J.K., Dorado, C. 2025. Investigation of the phytochemical composition of the seeds from four Huanglongbing (HLB) tolerant citrus genotypes and their potential as a biodiesel feedstock. Food Chemistry Advances. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-025-03049-x.
Winfield, D.D., Evangelista, R.L., Moser, B.R., Hay, W.T., Winkler-Moser, J.K., Bantchev, G.B., Cermak, S.C. 2025. Physicochemical characterization of Orychophragmus violaceous seeds and oil, a potential source of dihydroxy-fatty acids. Industrial Crops and Products. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2025.121530.