Collectors should take every opportunity to rear insects and mites. Not only are reared specimens generally in the best possible condition, but rearing provides life stages that otherwise might be collected only rarely or with great difficulty. By preserving one or more specimens from each of the stages as they are reared, if sufficient material is available, the collector can obtain series of immature stages along with associated adults. Such series are extremely desirable, especially for species in which the adult is known but the immature stages are unknown or difficult to identify. The converse often is true also-some species of insects, such as stem-mining flies, are fairly abundant in the larval stage but have never been reared to the adult stage; consequently, one does not know whether they are stages of a species that has been described and named from an adult but whose life history is unknown. Since adults of these flies are seldom found, the easiest way to obtain the stage necessary for specific determination is to rear the larvae or pupae.

If only a few specimens are reared, the shed skins and pupal cases or puparia should be preserved, as they are of value if properly associated with the reared adult. Do not preserve a pupa or puparium with an adult unless you are positive that the association is correct. It is best to put pupae in separate containers so that adults or parasites that emerge are associated with certainty. If at all feasible, the parasite's host should be preserved for identification. Keep careful notes throughout the rearing so that all data relative to the biology of the species are properly correlated.

1.13.1- Containers for Rearing

To rear specimens successfully, simulate as closely as possible in the rearing cages the natural conditions under which the immatures werq found. Almost any container will serve as a temporary cage for living insects or mites. One simple temporary cage that is very handy on field trips is a paper bag. Plant material or a soil sample containing insects or mites is placed in the paper bag, which is then sealed. A paper bag also can be placed over the top of a plant on which insects or mites are found. The bottom edge of the bag is tied tightly around the exposed stems, which are cut and placed in a jar of water. One disadvantage of using a paper bag is that it is not transparent, so it must be removed to observe the specimens or to determine when the foliage needs to be changed. Clear plastic bags are better suited to such viewing. Plastic bags with a paper towel placed in the bottom are extrememly efficient rearing containers for leaf mining and other small moths. They require frequent inversion to minimize condensation.

Another simple temporary cage is a glass jar with its lid replaced by a piece of organdy cloth or gauze held in place by a rubberband. A few such jars in a collecting kit are useful for holding live insects. For aquatic species, using a watertight lid on the jars is advisable. If aquatic insects are to be transported over a considerable distance, fewer will die if the jar is packed with wet moss or leaves than if the specimens are allowed to slosh around in water alone. After arrival at your destination, release the insects into a good rearing container (fig. 12).

Aquatic insects can be reared in their natural habitat by confining them in a wire screen or gauze cage, part of which is submerged in water. Be sure to anchor the cage securely. The screen used in aquatic cages should be coarse enough to allow food to flow through, yet fine enough to retain the insects being reared. Certain aquatic insects may be reared readily indoors in an aquarium or even in a glass jar. The main goal is to try to duplicate their natural habitat. If the specimen was collected from a rapidly flowing stream, it is unlikely to survive indoors unless the water is aerated. Other insects do well in stagnant water. Aquatic vegetation usually should be provided in the aquarium even for predaceous specimens, such as dragonfly nymphs, which often are found clinging to underwater stems. Keep sufficient space, which will vary according to the insect being reared, between the surface of the water and the screen or gauze cover over the aquarium to allow the adult insect to emerge. A dragonfly, for example, needs considerable space, plus a stick, rock, or other object on which to perch after emerging so that the wings will develop fully.

Most adult insects, both terrestrial and aquatic, are teneral when they first emerge and should not be killed until the exoskeleton and wings harden and the colors develop fully. This may be a matter of minutes, hours, or even days. It is advisable to keep even small flies alive for 1 full day after they emerge. Specimens killed while still teneral will shrivel when mounted. Some insects, if kept in cages too long after emerging, especially butterflies and moths, will beat their wings against the cage and lose many scales or tear their wings. Providing adequate space in which emerging insects may expand their wings fully and move about slightly is therefore critical in the design of rearing cages.

Beetles and other boring insects often are abundant in bark and wood. If pieces of such material are placed in glass or metal containers, excellent specimens of the adults may be obtained, although sometimes not for a considerable time. Cages made of wood or cardboard are not suitable for such insects because those found in wood or bark usually are well equipped, both in immature and adult stages, to chew their way through a cage made of such material and thus escape.

A flowerpot cage is one of the best containers for rearing plant-feeding species over an extended period. The host plant, if its size and habitat permit, is placed in a flowerpot, and a cylinder of glass, plastic, or wire screen is placed around the plant (fig. 12, lower left).

Another type of flowerpot cage is made by inserting a cane or stick, taller than the plant, into the soil in the pot. One end of a net or muslin tube is fitted over the edge of the pot and is held in place by a string. The other end of the tube is tied around the top of the stick. An advantage of the flowerpot cage is that the plant is living, and fresh plant material need not be added daily.

Plant-feeding mites will not wander far as long as suitable host material is available for them. Because mites are wingless even as adults, they can be confined in an open rearing container by making a barrier around the top edge or upper inner sides of the container with Vaseline or talcum powder.

Emergence cages are essentially rearing cages that are used when it is impractical or impossible to bring specimens indoors. Emergence cages may also be considered as traps and are discussed under that heading (see p. 13). With plant- feeding insects, a sleeve consisting of a muslin tube with open ends is slipped over a branch or plant and tied at one end. The insects are then placed in the tube, and the loose end of the tube is tied. This cloth tube can be modified to allow observation of the insects by replacing the midsection with a "window" of clear plastic or wire screen. If the insects in the tube require duff or debris in which to pupate, the tube should be placed perpendicular to the ground and duff or debris placed in the lower end.

1.13.2 - Rearing Conditions and Problems

1.13.2.1 - Moisture

The moisture requirements of insects and mites are varied. Examination of the habitat from which specimens were collected should provide clues about their moisture requirements in captivity. Many insects in the pupal stage are resistant to drought. Species that normally infest stored foods also require very little moisture; in fact, many produce their own water. Most species found outdoors require higher levels of humidity than are generally found indoors. Additional moisture can be added to indoor rearing cages in several ways. To increase the humidity in a cage, keep a moist pad of cotton on top of the screen cover of the cage, or place a moist sponge or a small glass vial filled with water in the cage. The mouth of the vial is plugged with cotton and the vial laid on its side so the cotton remains moist. Pupae may be held for long periods in moist sawdust, vermiculite, sphagnum, or peat moss. In a flowerpot cage, the water used to keep the plant alive should provide sufficient moisture for the plant feeding insects and mites. Spraying the leaves daily also may supplement moisture requirements in rearing cages. Too much moisture may result in water condensation on the sides of the cage, which may trap the specimens and damage or kill them. Excess moisture also enhances the growth of mold and fungus, which is detrimental to the development of most insects and mites. A 2-3 percent solution of table salt sprayed regularly in the cage will help prevent mold and fungus growth.

1.13.2.2 - Temperature

Of all the environmental factors affect ing the development and behavior of insects and mites, temperature may be the most critical. Since arthropods are cold blooded, their body temperatures are usually close to the temperature of the surrounding environment, and their metabolism and development are directly affected by increases and decreases in temperature. Each stage of an insect or mite species has a low and a high point at which development ceases. These are called threshold temperature levels.

Most species that are collected and brought indoors for rearing can be held at normal room temperature; the optimum temperature for rearing will vary from species to species and with different stages of the same species. As with all rearing techniques, every attempt should be made to duplicate natural conditions. Specimens that normally would overwinter outdoors should be kept during the winter in rearing cages placed in an unheated room, porch, or garage. Never place an enclosed rearing cage in direct sunlight; the heat becomes too intense and may kill the specimens.

1.13.2.3 - Dormancy and Diapause

Insects and mites are unable to control the temperature of their environment; instead, they make physiological adjustments that allow them to survive temperature extremes. In regions with freezing winters, insects and mites have at least one stage that is resistant to low temperatures. The resistant form may be any stage-egg, larva, nymph, pupa, or adult. When winter arrives, only the resistant form survives. Dormancy is the physiological state of an insect or mite during a period of arrested development, whereas diapause is the prolonged period of arrested development brought about by such adverse conditions as heat, drought, or cold. This condition can be used to advantage in rearing. For example, if leaving rearing cages unattended for several days or longer is unavoidable, many (but unfortunately not all) specimens can be refrigerated temporarily to slow their activity and perhaps force diapause. This measure should be used with caution since the degree and duration of cold tolerated by different species will vary.

The reverse situation, that of causing diapause to end, is equally useful. Overwintering pupae that normally would not develop into adults until spring can be forced to terminate diapause early by chilling them for several weeks or months, then bringing them to room temperature so normal activity will resume. Often mantid egg cases are brought indoors accidentally with Christmas greenery. The eggs, already chilled for several months, hatch when kept at room temperature, often to the complete surprise and consternation of the unsuspecting homeowner.

1.13.2.4 - Light

Most species of insects and mites can be reared under ordinary lighting conditions; however, artificial manipulation of the light period will control diapause in many species. If the light requirements of the species being reared are known, it may be possible to adjust the period of light so that the specimens will continue to develop and will remain active instead of entering diapause, for example, providing 8-10 hours of light as opposed to 16 hours. Light and dark periods can be regulated with a 24-hour timing switch or clock timer. The timer is set to regulate light and dark periods to correspond with the desired lengths of light and darkness. It is important to remember that many insects and mites are very sensitive to light; sometimes even a slight disturbance of the photoperiod can disrupt their development.

1.13.2.5 - Food

The choice of food depends on the species being reared. Some species are general feeders and will accept a wide assortment of food, including dead or decaying organic matter. Examples of general feeders are most ants, crickets, and cockroaches. Other groups are specific feeders, with food preferences so restricted that only a single species of plant or animal is acceptable. Carefully note at the time of collection the food being consumed by the specimen, and provide the same food in the rearing cages.

Carnivorous insects should be given prey similar to that which they normally would consume. This diet can be supplemented when necessary with such insects as mosquito larvae, wax moth larvae, mealworms, maggots, or other insects that are easily reared in large numbers in captivity. If no live food is available, a carnivorous insect sometimes may be tempted to accept a piece of raw meat dangled from a thread. Once the insect has grasped the meat, the thread can be gently withdrawn. The size of the food offered depends on the size of the insect being fed. If the offering is too large, the feeder may be frightened away.

Bloodsucking species can be kept in captivity by allowing them to take blood from a rat, mouse, rabbit, or guinea pig. A human should be used as a blood source only if it is definitely known that the insect or mite being fed is free of diseases that may be transmitted to the human.

Stored-product insects and mites are easily kept alive and breeding in containers with flour, grains, tobacco, oatmeal or other cereal foods, and similar products. Unless leaf-feeding insects are kept in flowerpot cages where the host plant is growing, fresh leaves from the host plant must usually be placed in the rearing cage daily and old leaves removed.

1.13.2.6 - Artificial Diets

Some species can be maintained on an artificial diet. The development of suitable artificial diets is complex, involving several factors besides the mere nutritional value of the dietary ingredients. Because most species of insects and mites have very specific dietary requirements, information regarding artificial diets is found mainly in reports of studies on specific insects or mites.

1.13.3 - Special Problems and Precautions in Rearing

Problems may arise in any rearing program. Cannibalism, for instance, is a serious problem in rearing predaceous insects and necessitates rearing specimens in individual containers. Some species resort to cannibalism only if their cages become badly overcrowded. Disease is also a problem. It can be caused by introducing an unhealthy specimen into a colony, poor sanitary conditions, lack of food, or overcrowding.

Cages should be cleaned frequently and all dead or unhealthy specimens removed. Use care not to injure specimens when transferring them to fresh food or when cleaning the cages. Mites and small insects can be transferred with a camel's hair brush.

Attacks by parasites and predators also can be devastating to a rearing program. Carefully examine the host material when it is brought indoors and before it is placed in the rearing containers to lessen the possibility of predators and parasites being introduced accidentally. Also, place rearing cages where they will be safe from ants, mice, the family cat, and other predators.

References (rearing): Banks et al. 1981; Clarke 1941; Fincher & Stewart 1968; Furumizo 1975; Gerberich 1945; Harwood & Areekul 1957; Hodgson 1940; Krombein 1967; Levin 1957; Merritt et al. 1978; Peterson 1964; Sladeckova 1962; USDA 1970.